sustainable

Topics on Sustainable crop production course

What is the certification in organic farming, the requirements?

Organic certification verifies that your farm or handling facility complies with the certifying company organic regulations. This certification allows you to sell, label, and represent your products as organic. Farms all over the world may be certified to the certifying company organic standards. Most farms and businesses that grow, handle, or process organic products must be certified. Certification allows you to call your product "organic" and to use the certifying company seal.

To become certified, you must apply to a CERTIFYING COMPANY -accredited certifying agent. They will ask you for information, including:

Primary products (wheat, corn, peas, potato, etc):

- only from ecological production

Processed products:

- minimum 95% of raw materials from ecological production

- GMO not allowed

- not allowed the ionizing radiation

- only no-harmful additives (E 270 = lactic acid, E 296 = malic acid, E 330 = citric acid, E 500 = N carbonate, E- 948 = oxigen, etc)

What is the transition period in organic farming?

Arable land: 2 years

- Permanent cultures: 3 years:

• vineyard

• orchards

• perennial crops (alfalfa, etc)

- Grass, pasture: 2 years

- Mushroom production: no transition time

- After GMO plants : 5 years

- Beekeeping: 1 year (vax change needed)

Nutrient supply possibilities in organic farming.

- Adequate crop rotation (legumes)

-Farm manure

-Green manure (lupines, facelia, oil radish, rape, etc)

-Crop residuals

-Organic matters (horns, bones, blood, meat)

-Compost

-Natural minerals

Plant protection possibilities in organic farming.

Synthetic pesticides are not allowed
Adequate crop rotation
Adequate variety selection (resistance)

Biological control
Natural enemies
Parazites, superparazites
Diseases
Natural pesticides
Sex feromon traps
Bacillus thuringiensis
Var kurstaki: caterpillars, etc.
Var tenebrioides : Colorado potato beetle
Granulovirus

Definition, significance and the aims of organic farming.

(IFOAM, 2008) defines organic farming as a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people.

It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved.

Official NOSB (National Organic Standards Board) says: "Organic agriculture is an ecological production management system that promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It is based on minimal use of off-farm inputs and on management practices that restore, maintain and enhance ecological harmony.

Significance

Organic agriculture practices cannot ensure that products are completely free of residues; however, methods are used to minimize pollution from air, soil and water.

Organic food handlers, processors and retailers adhere to standards that maintain the integrity of organic agricultural products. The primary goal of organic agriculture is to optimize the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil life, plants, animals and people."

Aims

Produce food of high quality in sufficient quantity
Maintain biological diversity within the farming system
Rely on renewable resources in locally organized agricultural systems
Minimize pollution and protect the environment

The role of the soil as living system in organic farming.

Organic farming build healthy soils by nourishing the living component of the soil, the microbial inhabitants that release, transform, and transfer nutrients.

Soil organic matter contributes to good soil structure and water-holding capacity.
Introduce vermi-culture composting.
Adopt green manureing.
Organic Farming creates “Living Soil”, it means:

Full of life with microorganism, fungi, worms and termites.

Very rich in macro and micro elements, trace elements, and vital energy

Very rich in organic matter

About nutrients:

Providing crop nutrients indirectly using relatively insoluble nutrient sources which are made available to the plant by the action of soil micro-organisms.

Nitrogen self-sufficiency through the use of legumes and biological nitrogen fixation, as well as effective recycling of organic materials including crop residues and livestock manure

7. Global water use, the main and special aims of irrigation.

Special aims of irrigation
Frost protection
Chemigation
Fertigation
Crop cooling or higher the air humidity
Soil protection (wind erosion and dust control)
Desirable saline and sodic balance maintenance
Leaching of undesirable soil chemicals

8. Factors should be considered for choosing irrigation method.
To choose an irrigation method, the farmer must know the advantages and disadvantages of the various methods. He or she must know which method suits the local conditions best.
Unfortunately, in many cases there is no single best solution: all methods have their advantages and disadvantages.

1. Natural condition
-Soil type
-Slope
-Climate
-Water availability
-Water quality
2. Type of crop
3. Type of technology
-Surface irrigation
-Sprinkler irrigaton
-Subsurface irrigation
-Micro irrigation
4. Previous experience with irrigation
5. Required labour inputs
-Construction
-Operation
-Maintenance
6. Costs and benefits.

9. Short evaluation of the irrigation methods

1. Surface irrigation
Water is applied by gravity across the soil surface by flooding or small channels (basins, borders, paddies, furrows, rills, corrugations)

2. Sprinkler irrigation
Water is applied by a system of nozzles (impact and gear driven sprinkler or spray heads).

3. Subsurface irrigation
Water is made available by upward capillary flow through the soil profile from a controlled water table.
-Water table management system.
-Reduce crop stress caused by excess water in the plant root zone.
4. Micro irrigation
Water is applied through low pressure, low volume discharge devices (drip emitters, line source emitters, micro spray and sprinkler heads, bubblers) supplied by small diameter pipelines.
- Deep percolation can be controlled with good water management.
-Very efficient, little if any runoff and little evaporation occur.
- Water is applied at the point of use.
- Systems can be easily automated (soil sensors and computer).
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10. The effect of irrigation on the environment.

Main object: adequate water supply for crops
high yield
good quality
yield stability

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF IRRIGATION

Environmental impacts of irrigation are the changes in quantity and quality of soil and water as a result of irrigation and the ensuing effects on natural and social conditions at the tail-end and downstream of the irrigation scheme.

The impacts stem from the changed hydrological conditions owing to the installation and operation of the scheme.

An irrigation scheme often draws water from the river and distributes it over the irrigated area. As a hydrological result it is found that:
the downstream river discharge is reduced
the evaporation in the scheme is increased
the groundwater recharge in the scheme is increased
the level of the water table rises
the drainage flow is increased

These may be called direct effects.

The effects thereof on soil and water quality are indirect and complex, waterlogging and soil salinization are part of these, whereas the subsequent impacts on natural, ecological and socio economic conditions is very intricate.

Irrigation can also be done extracting groundwater by (tube) wells. As a hydrological result it is found that the level of the water descends. The effects may be water mining, land/soil subsidence, and, along the coast, saltwater intrusion.

Irrigation projects can have large benefits, but the negative side effects are often overlooked.The lower the irrigation efficiency, the higher are the losses. Although fairly high irrigation efficiencies of 70% or more (i.e. losses of 30% or less) can be obtained with sophisticated techniques like sprinkler irrigation and drip irrigation, or by precision land levelling for surface irrigation, in practice the losses are commonly in the order of 40 to 60%.

The effects of irrigation on water table, soil salinity and salinity of drainage and groundwater, and the effects of mitigation measures can be simulated and predicted using agro-hydro-salinity models.

12. Definition of sustainable crop production, the change of world’s population

Sustainable crop production:

Producing crops with an ecological balance and avoiding depletion of natural resources towards the next generation would find the same level of them.

Optimizing crop production per unit area, taking into consideration the range of sustainability aspects including potential and/or real social, political, economic and environmental impacts.

Change of world’s population

Human Numbers through Time: 1999 (NOVA)

Around October 12, 1999, the six-billionth baby arrived.

Today, Europe and Africa each hold about 12% of the world's population, 9% live in Latin America, 5% in North America.

Asia is home to the majority of Earth's inhabitants-roughly 61 percent, or more than 3.5 billion people.

Human Numbers through Time: 2050 (NOVA)

Over the next half century, our numbers will increase again, likely to a staggering nine billion people.

Nearly all of this growth will take place in developing countries, where the demand for food and water already outstrips supplies.

13. Global land use data, proportion of cultivated land, challenge of the agriculture in the future.

Global land use data
Total world land area suitable for cropping: 4.4 billion hectares
Percent of the total world cultivated area that is rainfed: 80% (1.2 billion ha)
Total land area currently being cultivated: 1.6 billion hectares
Of which 20% (0.3 billion ha) is on marginally suitable lands
Share of world land sources that are degraded: 25%
Share that are moderately degraded: 8%
Share that are improving:     10%
In several regions, soil quality constraints affect more than half the cultivated land base, notably in sub-Saharan Africa, Southern America, Southeast Asia and Northern Europe.

Proportion of cultivated land

Cultivated land per capita in countries:
Low income:    0.17 ha/capita
Medium-income: 0.23 ha/capita
High-income:    0.37 ha/capita

Challenge of the agriculture in the future
Feeding more people while using less land, water and energy.
Climate change and increasing competition between food and non-food agricultural products such as bioenergy have made the challenges of feeding the future more complex.
Use of crop production management systems that promote and enhance agro-ecosystem health, that are socially, ecologically and economically sustainable and able to protect our soils while maintaining high productive capacities.
Numerous and diverse farming approaches promote the sustainable management of soils with the goal of improving productivity, f.i: conservation agriculture, organic farming, zero tillage farming and agroforestry.

14. The agricultural production and area of the main crops in the world

Agricultural production
Cultivated area where irrigation was practiced in 1961:     139 million hectares
Cultivated area where irrigation was practiced in 2006:     301 million hectares
Average cultivated area needed to feed 1 person in 1961:     0.45 ha
Average cultivated area needed to feed 1 person in 2006:     0.22 ha
Expansion in the area of land used to food crops between 1960 and 2010: 12%
Increase in world agricultural productivity during the same period: 150-200%
Extent of total cultivated land (rainfed + irrigated) in 1961: 1.4 billion hectares
Extent of total cultivated land (rainfed + irrigated) in 2010: 1.6 billion hectares

World Map of Cropland and Pastureland

AREA OF THE MAIN CROPS IN THE WORLD

15. Precision farming technologies and the benefits of precision farming.
It provide:
1.- Guidance systems
2.- Automatic section control
reduce overlap
accurate placement of inputs (seed, fertilizers, pesticides etc.), what and where is needed
preserve conservation structures (no spray zones, etc.)
3.- Variable rate technology
accurate metering of inputs
accurate placement of inputs
preserve conservation structures
4.- Crop sensors, mapping
accurate timing
accurate placement of inputs
preserve conservation structures

5.- Yield monitoring and mapping
Basis of determining right amount, timing and source

Benefits
adequate and precise nutrient supply,
enhanced environmental stewardship through better nutrient and pesticide management,
higher yield,
more even quality,
high level farming,
economic benefits, higher efficiency (22% saving),
continously growing database of the production,
quality assurance and traceabilty,
higher level in costs controlling
history of completed work

16. What are the transgenic crops, the generations of GM crops?
This is a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. DNA is transfered from an organism to another organism. It needs of genetic engineering techniques such us: gene guns, electroporaton, microinjection, Agrobacterium tumefaciens (model biologic) and recently more precise and convenient     editing techniques.

1. generation GMO plants
the main focus is agronomic traits (mainly resistance-genes)
herbicide tolerance
resistance to bacterial, viral and fungal diseases
pest resistance
abiotic stress tolerance (drought, cold, etc.)
2. generation GMO plants
special market demands
color, shape, taste
improved digestibility
increased nutritional value, reduction of anti nutritional factors
storability
3. generation GMO plants
special “bioreactors”
pharmaceutical industry (insulin, anti-caries tobacco, b-carotene (golden rice), vitamins, antibodies, vaccines, etc.)
food industry resources (enzymes,     omega 3 and 6 fatty acids, etc.)
special materials (e.g. plastics)

17. The global GM crops’ area, the aims of creating GM plants, the main GM crops in the world.
AIMS FOR GENETIC TRANSFORMATION:
Resistance to biotic (pests, diseases) and abiotic stresses
Resistance to chemical treatments (herbicide)
Improvement of quality (nutrient profile)
Biopharmaceuticals
Biofuel crops
Phytoremediation
Floriculture

Cultivation of GM plants worldwide in 2009 (millions of hectares)

Total area
Area GM
Proportion GM (%)
Soyabean
90
69
77
Maize
158
42
26
Cotton
33
16
49
Rapeseed
31
6.4
21
Sugarbeet
4.4
0.5
9

18. The risks and concerns of use GM crops.
PRIMARY ECOLOGICAL RISKS
Vertical gene transfer GM gene to related plants
crossing between GM plant and wild relatives
changing GM plants into weeds
volunteer plants in other crop cultures
Horizontal gene transfer  GM gene to nonrelated plants
emerging of new type viral and bacterial diseases
spreading of antibiotic resistance genes
reviving of latent viruses
SECONDARY ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Bt plants impact non-targeted organisms     (insects, worms, soil bacteria, etc.)
Effects on biodiversity (positive, negative effects)
“A major use of GM crops is in insect control through the expression of the cry (crystal delta-endotoxins) and Vip (vegetative insecticidal proteins) genes from Bacillus thuringiensis(Bt). Such toxins could affect other insects in addition to targeted pests such as the European corn borer. Bt proteins have been used as organic sprays for insect control in France since 1938 and the US since 1958, with no reported ill effects. Cry proteins selectively target Lepidopterans (moths and butterflies). As a toxic mechanism, cryproteins bind to specific receptors on the membranes of mid-gut (epithelial) cells, resulting in their rupture. Any organism that lacks the appropriate receptors in its gut is unaffected by the cry protein, and therefore is not affected by Bt.[240][241] Regulatory agencies assess the potential for transgenic plants to affect non-target organisms before approving their commercial release.
Lövei et al. analyzed laboratory settings and found that Bt toxins could affect non-target organisms, generally closely related to the intended targets. Typically, exposure occurs through the consumption of plant parts, such as pollen or plant debris, or through Bt ingestion by predators. A group of academic scientists criticized the analysis, writing: "We are deeply concerned about the inappropriate methods used in their paper, the lack of ecological context, and the authors’ advocacy of how laboratory studies on non-target arthropods should be conducted and interpreted" “

“Biodiversity
Crop genetic diversity might decrease due to the development of superior GM strains that crowd others out of the market. Indirect effects might affect other organisms. To the extent that agrochemicals impact biodiversity, modifications that increase their use, either because successful strains require them or because the accompanying development of resistance will require increased amounts of chemicals to offset increased resistance in target organisms.”
Food safety risks
Toxic food (Bt plants produce toxins)
Food allergy
Antibiotic-resistance genes in food
Economic risks
“Genetic colonization”
Monopoly of gene technology (patented varieties)
Decreasing export possibilities for     developing     countries (tropical GM plants can tolerate cool climate)
EXTRA INFORMATION
General Conclusions
World food supplies will demand more intensive crop production, despite a reduction in available agricultural land because of deterioration of soil quality, drought, climatic change, disease, and political unrest.
Farmers will demand more value per unit of agricultural land.
Genetic engineering, when used in collaboration with traditional or conventional breeding methods, will be able to increase crop production.
Application of transgenic plants also proposes a sort of safety questions and its long term effects are unknown.
19. Definition and benefits of agroforestry systems.
Agroforestry is an intensive land management system that optimizes the benefits from the biological interactions created when trees and/or shrubs are deliberately combined with crops and/or livestock.
Economic Benefits
-Enhance Production: crops have less bruising, scarring, and insect problems, improved growth rates
-Income Diversification: potentially increase crop yields per acre while conserving natural resources.

Environmental Benefits
-Water Quality: filter rainfall runoff laden with sediment, nutrient, chemical, and biological contaminants.
-Soil Quality: improve soil quality while reducing or minimizing wind and water soil erosion.
-Wildlife Habitat: increase wildlife species and diversity of plants andphysical structure in a landscape
-Climate Change Adaptation, Mitigation and Carbon Sequestration.
-Energy Conservation: reduce home heating/cooling needs, reduce the need for snow removal and reduce irrigation needs, all of which save fuel.
-Air Quality: The leaves and branches of trees and shrubs in agroforestry help filter and absorb air pollutants.

Social Benefits
-Building Networks and Community: landowners can learn from one another about new practices
-Jobs: can strengthen the resilience of that economic enterprise to fluctuations and changes by diversifying its income. In turn, this resilience can help maintain and create jobs.
-Quality of Life: Agroforestry systems protect soil, water, wildlife, roads, and buildings, in addition to reducing noise, moderating odors, lessening wind and filtering dust.
-Visual Quality: can add variety to the landscape, screen undesirable views and provide recreational opportunities for viewing wildlife.

20. Agroforestry practices.
1) Alley cropping: These systems are created by planting single or multiple tree rows at a predetermined spacing. The space between the rows is the alley where agricultural or horticultural crops are planted. Species: Hardwoods, like walnut, oak, ash, and pecan.
2) Windbreaks: are linear plantings of trees and shrubs designed to enhance crop production, protect people and livestock, and benefit soil and water conservation.
3) Riparian forest buffers: are strips of vegetation, including trees and shrubs, alongside streams, lakes, wetlands, ponds, and drainage ditches. These buffers intercept sediment, nutrients, pesticides and other materials in surface runoff.
4) Silvopasture: combine trees, livestock and forages on the same acreage. With this approach, the trees create a favorable microclimate condition for growing forage (pasture or hay), reduces heat for livestock, while the trees grow wood or other products.
5) Forest farming: is the cultivation of high-value non-timber forest products under the protection of a forest canopy that has been modified to provide the correct shade level.
6) Woody crop plantations: Short duration woody plant species, fuel woods (willow, poplar, etc), increase biodiversity of the farm, good income.
21. Sustainable maize production technology
Maize requires very good quality soils: chernozem, better meadow soils, good brown forest soils.    Not suitable soils: very heavy, clayey soils, sodic soils, eroded, shallow layer soils
Maize gives low yield on sandy soils, due to the unfavourable water balance and low availability of nutrients
Crop rotation
Good forecrops: winter wheat, winter barley, spring barley, rapeseed, sweetcorn, early potato, flax, poppyseed, hemp, alfalfa, red clover.
Medium forecrops: sunflower, maize, maize for silage, sugar beet, fodder mixtures
Bad forecrops: monoculture maize, sugar sorghum, grain sorghum, sudangrass, alfalfa and sugarbeet in dry years.

NUTRIENT SUPPLY OF MAIZE
Specific nutrient demand for 100 kg main and by-products:
N:        2.5 kg/100 kg
P2O5:        1.3 kg/100 kg
K2O:        2.2 kg/100 kg

Recommended fertilizer doses:
N:            60-120 kg/ha
P2O5:             60- 90 kg/ha
K2O:             60-110 kg/ha

Harvesting possibilities:
combining    < 25% kernel moisture
silage harvest (whole plant)     33-35% moisture
CCM (Corn Cob Mix)            35% moisture
picking (sweet corn, hybrid seed)

22. Sustainable winter wheat production technology
Soil conditions of winter wheat
Aspects:
strong, well developed root system
good nutrient and water uptake ability
good adaptation ability

God soils:
chernozem
brown forest soils
better meadow soils (not extreme clayey)
alluvial soils
salty soils (medium or good quality)
sandy soils (0.8-1.2% humus content)

1/ PREPARATORY OPERATIONS
2/ BASIC TILLAGE
Ploughing: plows
Using discs: heavy- and light discs
Loosening: heavy cultivator, medium deep loosener, combined machinery

3/ FINISHING OPERATIONS OF BASIC TILLAGE
Depending on soil properties and soil conditions:
heavy- and light discs
spade harrows
multitiller
combined equipment
combinators

4/ SEEDBED PREPARATION
- combinators
- spade harrows

RECOMMENDED NUTRIENT DOSES FOR WINTER WHEAT
N                60 – 140 kg/ha
P2O5            30 – 70 kg/ha
K2O            40 – 90 kg/ha

FERTILIZATION PRACTICES OF WINTER WHEAT

Artificial fertilizers
mono, complex
solid, liquid
         →     suspension
         →     UAN
         →     ammonium
         →     other (Biofert)
producing fast effect   (Kemira)
producing slow effect   (inhibitory fertilizers)

Farm manure
Green manure
Other (liming materials etc.)

CROP ROTATION OF WINTER WHEAT
GOOD FORECROPS
All leguminous plants
Winter and spring forage mixes
Non-leguminous plants with early removal time    (rape , poppy-seed, flax, tobacco, early potato)
alfalfa and red clover broken after the second mowing and their grass mixture
MEDIUM FORECROPS
Green maize and silage maize grown as main crop
Early root crops (potato, sugarbeet)
Sunflower
UNFAVOURABLE FORECROPS
Cereals (wheat, barley)
All crops that can be harvested late, after 10th October

23. Sustainable alfalfa production technology
The basic cultural requirements for alfalfa are similar whether it is grown organically or conventionally.
Seeding rates typically range from 12 to 15 pounds per acre. Seed may be drilled or broadcast into a well-prepared seedbed. Firm seed-to-soil contact is necessary and may be achieved with a cultipacker or from the drill presswheels.
Plant high quality seed that is inoculated with the appropriate rhizobium bacteria strain to assure good nodulation and nitrogen fixation.
Alfalfa requires a deep, well-drained, loamy soil with a pH between 6.5 and 7.5, free of hardpans and shallow bedrock, to accommodate the plant's long taproot that can penetrate to 20 feet.
Alfalfa responds well to phosphorus and potassium fertility, but no nitrogen is required, since alfalfa (being a legume) fixes its own nitrogen.
It also uses three to five pounds of boron per acre per year. Adequate lime, phosphorus, and potassium levels should be established prior to planting, if possible.
Base fertilizer application rates on soil-test results, crop needs, and the nutrient content of the material being applied.